While -MSH has 13 amino acids, KPV comprises just the final threeyet retains potent anti-inflammatory activity without the melanogenic (tanning) effects of the full peptide
Their formation begins when macrophages and dendritic cells recognize antigens via pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), triggering the secretion of cytokines (e.g., TNF-, IL-1, IL-6, IL-12) and chemokines (e.g., CXCL9, CXCL10, CCL2), these mediators promote macrophage recruitment and aggregation to form the granuloma core (41)
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351,352,353 Notably, ICs formed by heparin-induced thrombocytopenia/thrombosis can interact with FcRIIa on neutrophils to induce NETosis, ultimately leading to thrombosis